By: Zach
1. Motion in one dimension→
Movement in one dimension means the object must travel in an exactly straight line. Linear velocity is the speed of an object in a straight line, which applies to motion in a single dimension.
2. Motion in two dimensions→ forces that act upon the object: gravity—produces the parabola like pattern through the air.
3. Newton’s laws of Motion--- (1) A body will remain at rest, or continue to move at a constant velocity, unless an outside net force acts upon it. (2) Rate of change in momentum is proportional to the resultant force producing it and takes place in the direction of that force, determined f=ma. (3) To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
4. Work and energy→
Work—the amount of energy transferred by a force, its equation is: W=FD, force times distance. Also known by its simpler definition: weight lifted through a height.
How does energy play in?
The mechanical energy of a body is that part of its total energy which is subject to change by mechanical work. It includes kinetic energy and potential energy. Some notable forms of energy that it does not include are thermal energy (which can be increased by frictional work, but not easily decreased) and rest energy (which is constant as long as the rest mass remains the same).
5. Momentum→ there is linear momentum and angular momentum. Momentum is the tendency to keep moving. The equation p=mv shows that the momentum of something is directly proportional to its mass.
6. Rotational motion – equilibrium and dynamics→
Angular displacement: the distance traveled in a circle, measured in radians
Angular Velocity: AKA (w), it is the velocity of an object traveling in a circular path, also measured in radians, but rads per second
Tangential Velocity: think of it as the velocity of an object released after attaining an angular velocity-so it’s the actual velocity of the angular velocity.
*All rotational motion has a linear motion counterpart
Mass vs. angular velocity; the one experiment, which shows that the force of rotational motion is proportional to the gravitational force
7. Waves and their phenomena→
WATER
Reflection—the bouncing off of a wave from a barrier at the same angle its incident was.
Refraction—the change in velocity of a wave due to a change in medium, this change causes the wave to bend.
Diffraction—the bending of a wave around or through two barriers. AKA the spreading out of a wave to fill in the shadow regions behind the barrier
TYPES
There are two types of waves: longitudinal waves, and transverse waves
SOUND
Frequency--# of oscillations per unit of time
Doppler affect—frequency shift due to a change in relative position between the listener and the sound source
LIGHT: alternating and oscillating electric and magnetic field
Also includes reflection, refraction, and diffraction, but also includes polarization
Polarization—alignment of all the electromagnetic waves so that they are parallel to each other
7. Light→ light travels in waves; it is an alternating oscillating electric and magnetic field.
All forms of E.M. radiation are created when an atom or molecule drops from a higher energy state to a lower one. The loss of energy, which occurs, is emitted in the form of radiation with an energy, which exactly matches this drop.
Visible light is created by electrons within atoms in an excited state returning to the ground state (a lower energy configuration). When the electron gains energy it moves to a higher energy level, then drops back to the ground state releasing its excess energy as light. The left animation shows how blue (higher energy) light and the animation to the right shows how red (lower energy) light is created. Visible light is created by electrons within atoms in an excited state returning to the ground state (a lower energy configuration). This stabilization releases energy in the form of a photon.
8. Electric fields→ it is a region where charged particles “feel the force.” It deals with how opposite charges attract each other. The force between charges decreases as the distance between them increases, this is proven by coulombs law: F= q1q2k/r^2
9. Magnetic fields→
A few things to note
-Magnetic field always goes north to south
-The magnetic field around a current carrying wire is spirally
-The Lorentz Force→the force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.
10. Electromagnetism→
A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity - the electromagnetic field. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.
11. General Relativity→ it is a theory of gravity. Its main concept is that mass warps space-time. If you could imagine space as a blanket. Think about the blanket being stretched out so it was stiffer. Now imagine what will happen if you drop a lacrosse ball in it, a divot or little hole will be created due to the mass. Therefore mass warps or curves space-time (represented by the blanket). It has two principles: the Equivalence principle, which states that you can’t tell your accelerating in a gravity field. The second principle: the principle of general relativity states that all laws of physics are the same for all observers. The theory also proposes that acceleration is gravity—the elevator experiment. As the elevator goes up, very fast, the light bends having the same affect as gravity on other objects.
12. Quantum mechanics→ The discovery that waves have discrete energy packets (called quanta) that behave in a manner similar to particles led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum mechanics. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. Quantum mechanics is essential to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. For example, if Newtonian mechanics governed the workings of an atom, electrons would rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus, making stable atoms impossible. However, in the natural world the electrons normally remain in an unknown orbital path around the nucleus, defying classical electromagnetism.Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation of the atom, especially the spectra of light emitted by different atomic species. The quantum theory of the atom was developed as an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which could not be explained by Newton's laws of motion and by Maxwell's laws of classical electromagnetism.
13. Special Relativity→ It is a theory of space-time. It talks about the consistency of light speed. Some experiments include the light clock and the Mt. Washington muon experiment. Special relativity reveals that c is not just the velocity of a certain phenomenon, namely the propagation of electromagnetic radiation (light)—but rather a fundamental feature of the way space and time are unified as space-time. A consequence of this is that it is impossible for any particle that has mass to be accelerated to the speed of light.
14. Particle physics→ The standard model
Mattered energy
Forces Guage Particle constituents
(Mediating Field)
Fundamental forces
a. The strong force→ responsible for the binding of neutrons and protons into the nuclei. Like a rubber band as they get farther apart the force gets stronger; this is obviously the strongest force.
b. The electromagnetic forces→about 10^-2 times the strength of the strong force. It is responsible for the attraction of unlike charges and the repulsion of like charges. It is responsible for binding atoms and molecules. It’s strength decreases as the atoms and molecules part away from each other. 2nd strongest.
c. Weak force→is a short range nuclear interaction that is involved in beta decay. It is the 3rd strongest at 10^-13 the strength of the strong force.
d. Gravity force→is a long-range interaction with a strength of 10^-38 of the strong force. Doesn’t have much affect in the micro aspects of things although it holds our universe together. 4th strongest.
Mediating field Particles
e. Strong force→Gluon
f. EM→photons
g. Weak force→W and Z Bozons
h. Gravity→graviton (hasn’t actually been detected)
Constituents of matter
i. Strong force→hadrons
j. EM→Leptons, hadrons
k. Weak Force→Leptons, hadrons
l. Gravity→leptons, hadrons
Leptons cannot be broken down any farther, therefore neutrinos, electrons, muons are leptons and must be included in the EM, weak force, and gravity constituents.
Hadrons are strongly interacting particles, and can be broken down further into two classes: mesons and baryons. Mesons are unstable, and baryons are stable. Mesons and baryons can be even further broken down into quarks. The difference between mesons and baryons is the number of quarks each has. There are 6 types of quarks each one fits with its opposition: up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom.
MESON→ composed of one quark and one anti-quark
Baryon→three quarks
Quarks have charges
15. Cosmology→
• Big bang
It is crucial to understand that the 4 forces were indistinguishable at the beginning of the universe. The universe rapidly expanded and cooled and the forces separated. Most of the energy released in the big bang turned into radiation until 1 million years after the bigbang where it turned into matter. As it cooled even further the particles began binding due to the forces which existed because of the cooler temp.
• Cosmic microwave background radiation→Two guys by the names of Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were bugged by a persistent noise while in an observatory. Cosmic microwave radiation is radiation left over from the big bang. They really found the existence of the big bang.
• Expansion→ the reason the universe is expanding is because as it expands the gravity holding objects together weakens, thus causing an exponential increase in the expansion of the universe.
• Dark matter→makes up 22% of universe. Observations suggest that structure formation in the universe proceeds hierarchically, with the smallest structures collapsing first and followed by galaxies and then clusters of galaxies. As the structures collapse in the evolving universe, they begin to "light up" as the baryonic matter heats up through gravitational contraction and the object approaches hydrostatic pressure balance. Ordinary baryonic matter had too high a temperature, and too much pressure left over from the Big Bang to collapse and form smaller structures, such as stars, via the Jeans instability. Dark matter acts as a compactor of structure. This model not only corresponds with statistical surveying of the visible structure in the universe but also corresponds precisely to the dark matter predictions of the cosmic microwave background.
• Dark Energy→ The exact nature of this dark energy is a matter of speculation. It is known to be very homogeneous, not very dense and is not known to interact through any of the fundamental forces other than gravity. Since it is not very dense—roughly 10−29 grams per cubic centimeter—it is hard to imagine experiments to detect it in the laboratory. Dark energy can only have such a profound impact on the universe, making up 70% of all energy, because it uniformly fills otherwise empty space. The two leading models are quintessence and the cosmological constant. Makes up 75% of universe.
• Black body radiation→ electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body, which absorbs all incoming radiation and then emits radiation based only on its temperature. An ideal system that absorbs all incoming radiation is called a black body. Or more simply an object that emits radiation proportional to its temperature.
1. Motion in one dimension→
Movement in one dimension means the object must travel in an exactly straight line. Linear velocity is the speed of an object in a straight line, which applies to motion in a single dimension.
2. Motion in two dimensions→ forces that act upon the object: gravity—produces the parabola like pattern through the air.
3. Newton’s laws of Motion--- (1) A body will remain at rest, or continue to move at a constant velocity, unless an outside net force acts upon it. (2) Rate of change in momentum is proportional to the resultant force producing it and takes place in the direction of that force, determined f=ma. (3) To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
4. Work and energy→
Work—the amount of energy transferred by a force, its equation is: W=FD, force times distance. Also known by its simpler definition: weight lifted through a height.
How does energy play in?
The mechanical energy of a body is that part of its total energy which is subject to change by mechanical work. It includes kinetic energy and potential energy. Some notable forms of energy that it does not include are thermal energy (which can be increased by frictional work, but not easily decreased) and rest energy (which is constant as long as the rest mass remains the same).
5. Momentum→ there is linear momentum and angular momentum. Momentum is the tendency to keep moving. The equation p=mv shows that the momentum of something is directly proportional to its mass.
6. Rotational motion – equilibrium and dynamics→
Angular displacement: the distance traveled in a circle, measured in radians
Angular Velocity: AKA (w), it is the velocity of an object traveling in a circular path, also measured in radians, but rads per second
Tangential Velocity: think of it as the velocity of an object released after attaining an angular velocity-so it’s the actual velocity of the angular velocity.
*All rotational motion has a linear motion counterpart
Mass vs. angular velocity; the one experiment, which shows that the force of rotational motion is proportional to the gravitational force
7. Waves and their phenomena→
WATER
Reflection—the bouncing off of a wave from a barrier at the same angle its incident was.
Refraction—the change in velocity of a wave due to a change in medium, this change causes the wave to bend.
Diffraction—the bending of a wave around or through two barriers. AKA the spreading out of a wave to fill in the shadow regions behind the barrier
TYPES
There are two types of waves: longitudinal waves, and transverse waves
SOUND
Frequency--# of oscillations per unit of time
Doppler affect—frequency shift due to a change in relative position between the listener and the sound source
LIGHT: alternating and oscillating electric and magnetic field
Also includes reflection, refraction, and diffraction, but also includes polarization
Polarization—alignment of all the electromagnetic waves so that they are parallel to each other
7. Light→ light travels in waves; it is an alternating oscillating electric and magnetic field.
All forms of E.M. radiation are created when an atom or molecule drops from a higher energy state to a lower one. The loss of energy, which occurs, is emitted in the form of radiation with an energy, which exactly matches this drop.
Visible light is created by electrons within atoms in an excited state returning to the ground state (a lower energy configuration). When the electron gains energy it moves to a higher energy level, then drops back to the ground state releasing its excess energy as light. The left animation shows how blue (higher energy) light and the animation to the right shows how red (lower energy) light is created. Visible light is created by electrons within atoms in an excited state returning to the ground state (a lower energy configuration). This stabilization releases energy in the form of a photon.
8. Electric fields→ it is a region where charged particles “feel the force.” It deals with how opposite charges attract each other. The force between charges decreases as the distance between them increases, this is proven by coulombs law: F= q1q2k/r^2
9. Magnetic fields→
A few things to note
-Magnetic field always goes north to south
-The magnetic field around a current carrying wire is spirally
-The Lorentz Force→the force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.
10. Electromagnetism→
A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity - the electromagnetic field. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.
11. General Relativity→ it is a theory of gravity. Its main concept is that mass warps space-time. If you could imagine space as a blanket. Think about the blanket being stretched out so it was stiffer. Now imagine what will happen if you drop a lacrosse ball in it, a divot or little hole will be created due to the mass. Therefore mass warps or curves space-time (represented by the blanket). It has two principles: the Equivalence principle, which states that you can’t tell your accelerating in a gravity field. The second principle: the principle of general relativity states that all laws of physics are the same for all observers. The theory also proposes that acceleration is gravity—the elevator experiment. As the elevator goes up, very fast, the light bends having the same affect as gravity on other objects.
12. Quantum mechanics→ The discovery that waves have discrete energy packets (called quanta) that behave in a manner similar to particles led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum mechanics. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. Quantum mechanics is essential to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. For example, if Newtonian mechanics governed the workings of an atom, electrons would rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus, making stable atoms impossible. However, in the natural world the electrons normally remain in an unknown orbital path around the nucleus, defying classical electromagnetism.Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation of the atom, especially the spectra of light emitted by different atomic species. The quantum theory of the atom was developed as an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which could not be explained by Newton's laws of motion and by Maxwell's laws of classical electromagnetism.
13. Special Relativity→ It is a theory of space-time. It talks about the consistency of light speed. Some experiments include the light clock and the Mt. Washington muon experiment. Special relativity reveals that c is not just the velocity of a certain phenomenon, namely the propagation of electromagnetic radiation (light)—but rather a fundamental feature of the way space and time are unified as space-time. A consequence of this is that it is impossible for any particle that has mass to be accelerated to the speed of light.
14. Particle physics→ The standard model
Mattered energy
Forces Guage Particle constituents
(Mediating Field)
Fundamental forces
a. The strong force→ responsible for the binding of neutrons and protons into the nuclei. Like a rubber band as they get farther apart the force gets stronger; this is obviously the strongest force.
b. The electromagnetic forces→about 10^-2 times the strength of the strong force. It is responsible for the attraction of unlike charges and the repulsion of like charges. It is responsible for binding atoms and molecules. It’s strength decreases as the atoms and molecules part away from each other. 2nd strongest.
c. Weak force→is a short range nuclear interaction that is involved in beta decay. It is the 3rd strongest at 10^-13 the strength of the strong force.
d. Gravity force→is a long-range interaction with a strength of 10^-38 of the strong force. Doesn’t have much affect in the micro aspects of things although it holds our universe together. 4th strongest.
Mediating field Particles
e. Strong force→Gluon
f. EM→photons
g. Weak force→W and Z Bozons
h. Gravity→graviton (hasn’t actually been detected)
Constituents of matter
i. Strong force→hadrons
j. EM→Leptons, hadrons
k. Weak Force→Leptons, hadrons
l. Gravity→leptons, hadrons
Leptons cannot be broken down any farther, therefore neutrinos, electrons, muons are leptons and must be included in the EM, weak force, and gravity constituents.
Hadrons are strongly interacting particles, and can be broken down further into two classes: mesons and baryons. Mesons are unstable, and baryons are stable. Mesons and baryons can be even further broken down into quarks. The difference between mesons and baryons is the number of quarks each has. There are 6 types of quarks each one fits with its opposition: up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom.
MESON→ composed of one quark and one anti-quark
Baryon→three quarks
Quarks have charges
15. Cosmology→
• Big bang
It is crucial to understand that the 4 forces were indistinguishable at the beginning of the universe. The universe rapidly expanded and cooled and the forces separated. Most of the energy released in the big bang turned into radiation until 1 million years after the bigbang where it turned into matter. As it cooled even further the particles began binding due to the forces which existed because of the cooler temp.• Cosmic microwave background radiation→Two guys by the names of Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were bugged by a persistent noise while in an observatory. Cosmic microwave radiation is radiation left over from the big bang. They really found the existence of the big bang.
• Expansion→ the reason the universe is expanding is because as it expands the gravity holding objects together weakens, thus causing an exponential increase in the expansion of the universe.
• Dark matter→makes up 22% of universe. Observations suggest that structure formation in the universe proceeds hierarchically, with the smallest structures collapsing first and followed by galaxies and then clusters of galaxies. As the structures collapse in the evolving universe, they begin to "light up" as the baryonic matter heats up through gravitational contraction and the object approaches hydrostatic pressure balance. Ordinary baryonic matter had too high a temperature, and too much pressure left over from the Big Bang to collapse and form smaller structures, such as stars, via the Jeans instability. Dark matter acts as a compactor of structure. This model not only corresponds with statistical surveying of the visible structure in the universe but also corresponds precisely to the dark matter predictions of the cosmic microwave background.
• Dark Energy→ The exact nature of this dark energy is a matter of speculation. It is known to be very homogeneous, not very dense and is not known to interact through any of the fundamental forces other than gravity. Since it is not very dense—roughly 10−29 grams per cubic centimeter—it is hard to imagine experiments to detect it in the laboratory. Dark energy can only have such a profound impact on the universe, making up 70% of all energy, because it uniformly fills otherwise empty space. The two leading models are quintessence and the cosmological constant. Makes up 75% of universe.
• Black body radiation→ electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body, which absorbs all incoming radiation and then emits radiation based only on its temperature. An ideal system that absorbs all incoming radiation is called a black body. Or more simply an object that emits radiation proportional to its temperature.
